Games Analysis - Propositions

Sources:

Silbermann / Schaaf / Adam; Filmanalyse. Grundlagen - Methoden - Didaktik; 1980

Propositions of game analysis

Game code

Semantics of games

The semantics describe the meaning of the different signs and sign systems of the game. Elements that change meaning Every game contains elements, that bear in itself no direct meaning or do not visualise it, and therefor have no meaning in itself. In a simplified way four elements can be identified.

1. Lighting.

Lighting changes atmosphere and dimension of space and character, and has an influence on the visualised story and gameplay.

2. Image framing and "focallength" of the virtual camera lens.

Although there are no real camera's to record the digital space, elements of the filmic code are used in games. One of these aspects is the virtual focallength: a wide-angle lense visualises a space in a different way from a telephoto lens. Important is the overview (or the lack of it) caused by the use of the (virtual) camera.

Different types of framing can be used, combined with different types of "focal length":

Wide (panorama of a landscape or environment)
Very Long shot (the entire set, e.g. a road in a village)
Long shot (larger part of a set, e.g. a house on that road)
Medium Long shot (more focussed overview, e.g. a group of people in front of a house)
Medium shot (part of a total, e.g. one person in a group)
Close-up (small part of a total, e.g. a portrait)
Extreme close-up (very small part of a total, e.g. a face)
Macro (detail of e.g. a nose or eye)

3. Perspective.

The perspective used in the game can be taken from 1st or 3rd person, or not related to a character at all. When related to the environment, it can be shown in a normal perspective, a bird or frog perspective, or a specified type as the isometric perspective.

Elements that form meaning To be able to construct the smallest elements that bear meaning in a game, elements of four different sign systems are necessary:

1. The dramaturgical system.

Virtual environments and characters are created as visual and meaningful elements for a game-situation to start and develop.

2. The image system.

The virtual environments and characters are modelled and shown from a certain angle and perspective.

3. The speech system.

Text is created and linked to the virtual environment and virtual characters. This text can be visualised or spoken. The text used can also be more symbolical and does not always have to be fully understandable.

4. The musical and sound system.

Depending on the action, a musical score and soundscape is used to underline the situation or action.

All four elements can on itself already bear a meaning, but in the combination of the four the meaning of the smallest meaning-bearing game element is realised. The combination of the different elements can lead to a stronger emphasis on a certain meaning, can contradict each other, leaving the user to make his own choice, or can even turn the original meaning around, creating an opposite meaning.

Elements that bear meaning The smallest element that can bear meaning is the situation. It is a combination of player action, image and sound, and is definied by the fact that during the gamesituation there is no significant change of in the player's action. The changes can be either pre-determined by the designer: an editing of camera or a forced change because of a change in environment (a gap to jump over, or an enemy to avoid), or decided at that moment by the user. This does not mean, that the situation on itself always bears the entire meaning, or provides sufficient information to understand the meaning of the game. Often the combination of two or more different situations, explain the meaning or make a statement.

A larger element, that is often better to isolate and understand, is the scene, which is characterised by the untiy of place and time. This element derives of the term as it is used in theatre and dramaturgy. With some games this will prove to be a useful instrument, in others it will be difficult to make a separation between scenes, or to identify more than one scene.

Another possibility is looking at a combination of situations, the syntagma. The syntagma is defined by a contents orientated closed part of the action. Although this description is rather vague, it is a useful tool for all types of games, as in general different parts can be recognised in all kinds of different contents. As a further discrimination of elements that bear meaning, one can look at the combination of syntagmas or the entire game.

Syntactics of games

The syntactics describe the rules for the combination of the different elements of the game that bear meaning. The situation Situations are in itself constructions of different elements. This means that it is possible, that some of these elements do show a change in situation, while others do not, or at a different moment. As an example a situation can change at the level of the image, while the sound or music still continues.

1. Image.

The first level to be examined for an analysis would be that of the image. There are many different visual elements: the virtual environment, lighting effects, appearance of characters, perspective and virtual camera, etc.

2. Speech.

The second level is that of speech. Both spoken en written language, from characters, narrators and signs are to be examined.

3. Sound and Music.

The third level is that of sound and music. These elements add to the experience of gameplay and the atmosphere of the game situation.

4. Interaction and feedback.

The fourth and final level is that of interaction and feedback. The action of the user in the given situation, and the feedback through action and instruments, have an influence on the meaning and experience of the game situation.

The meaning of a situation comes from the combination of the four elements indicated above. All four elements bear their own, individual, meaning.

Editing A game uses the sequence of situations to develop the story and interaction. Through the combination of situations a syntagma arises. The theory of editing concentrates on the combination of situations. The connection of two situations gains in meaning compared to the sum of the two meanings. As there is little known about the possibillities of game-editing, the patterns described are taken from film-editing.

1. Editing through multiple use of situations.

* Parallel editing
The connection of several situations, a least four, where one of the situations continues to return after a certain serie of other situations. Of course it is also possible that a certain combination of situations is repeated. This type of editing is often used to raise the tension.

* Chiasm
In this type a certain situation is interrupted on a regular basis by another situation, which resembles the other by the used technique.

2. Editing by combination of situations that on itself do not bear sufficient meaning.

* Distinctio
The real meaning of a situation with multiple meanings becomes clear through the addition of the next situation.

* Climax
The statement in the first situation is enhanced in every further situation.

3. Editing through change of coordinates of the virtual camera. (This type will hardly be found in games)

* Polyptoton
The development of an action is divided into different situations, each with a different camera setting.

* Anastrophe
A succession of situation with certain camera settings is followed by another succession of situations with a different camera setting.

4. Editing through discontinuity of time and space.

* Ellips
The development of an action is brought back to two situations: the starting point and the end. The two situations are seperated by a neutral situation.

* Enumeratio
An overview situation is followed by a number of cut out situations, that represent the first situation completely again, or a part of it. The elapse of time is stopped for the period of this type of editing.

5. Editing by substitution of meaning.

* Synonymy
The contents of an image is substituted for a similar type of contents, while the position of the virtual camera stays unchanged.

* Annominatio
Also known as associative editing. Through the editing different type of situations, with different contents, are linked together. The effect of the sequence of the different contents of the situations causes the realisation of the meaning.

* Syntagma
It is difficult to give a general description of the syntagma. In its most simple form, it is just one situation, in others it contains any amount situations. Considering the single situation as an exemption, eight possible types are left:
- Autonomous situation
Next to the simple sequence, consisting of just one situation, it is also possible to have one long existing situation, in which another situation is inserted (interpolation).
- Parallel syntagma
Two independent events are alternately in situations shown and in this way connected. A relation between the contents of the two different events is established in this way.
- Clenched syntagma
Situations with different contents are connected through an equally structured combination. Thus offering a context for a certain situation.
- Descriptive syntagma
The edited situations do not show a development in time of the action, but show a spatial simultaneity.
- Alternating syntagma
The situations of two different actions are combined in such a consecutive way, that an impression of similarity is created.
- Scene
This is, as in theatre, a combination of situations, that are connected through a unity of time and space.
- Sequence
This is a combination of situations chosen from a continuity of action, by which a shortening of the real-time is realised.
- Episodes
A sequence of short situations without a direct relation, that are separated from each other by a certain type of interpolation.

Game as medium

The field of communication of games As a medium, games are a system of signs used to transmit meaning in the context of a communicational setting. This means that, besides the investigation of the game code, the elements of the communicational setting should be investigated as well. Often such a research focusses mainly on the part of the communicator.

Ten different parts of interest can be recognised, that are useful for such a research:

1. The characteristics of the development team, and the main responsible persons within this team
2. The level of development of the games industry in the country of origin
3. The political situation in the country of origin
4. The time of production
5. If relevant, the development of a certain (art) movement of a type of games
6. The distribution situation in the country of production
7. The importance of the game in relation to the production world wide
8. The specific productional circumstances of the game
9. The distribution plan of the game
10. The influence the game has on other future productions through the reception of it

A thorough analysis of course also involves the elements at the reception side of the communication. One has to take into account that relevent information can only be given from the situation at the moment of analysis, or through descriptions from others of effects during the reception. In general it is possible to describe the general situation on the side of reception during production or initial reception.

The communication process of games The communication in a game is always a one-way communication process as far as the relationship between the developer and the user is concerned. Users of course can have a communication during gameplay. In such cases the game is not used as a vehicel for the communication of meanings, but as a communication window for two (or more) individuals. An active feed back of the user to the developer is not possible.
For the analysis of the communication process the different elements of the field of communication can be investigated:

1. Communicator

1. Is it clear what the goal of the communicator is with this game?
2. Is there a certain target group recognisable as an audience?
3. Is it possible to recognise the attitude of the communicator towards the recepient?

2. Medium

1. Does the game take certain user habits into account?
2. Does the game use action cliches?
3. Does the game use manipulative means to make its statements?

3. Recipient

1. Is the motivation of the recepient influenced by elements of this game?
2. Is the effect of the game accomplished by certain elements?
3. Is the expectation of the recipient satisfied?

The communication process with games is always largely dependent on the attitude of the recipient, and his expectations and game habits.

Game code
Semantics of games The semantics describe the meaning of the different signs and sign systems of the game.	*Elements that change meaning*	Every game contains elements, that bear in itself no direct meaning or do not visualise it, and therefor have no meaning in itself. In a simplified way four elements can be identified.
		1. Lighting. Lighting changes atmosphere and dimension of space and character, and has an influence on the visualised story and gameplay.
		2. Image framing and "focallength" of the virtual camera lens. Although there are no real camera's to record the digital space, elements of the filmic code are used in games. One of these aspects is the virtual focallength: a wide-angle lense visualises a space in a different way from a telephoto lens. Important is the overview (or the lack of it) caused by the use of the (virtual) camera. Different types of framing can be used, combined with different types of "focal length": Wide (panorama of a landscape or environment) Very Long shot (the entire set, e.g. a road in a village) Long shot (larger part of a set, e.g. a house on that road) Medium Long shot (more focussed overview, e.g. a group of people in front of a house) Medium shot (part of a total, e.g. one person in a group) Close-up (small part of a total, e.g. a portrait) Extreme close-up (very small part of a total, e.g. a face) Macro (detail of e.g. a nose or eye)
		3. Perspective. The perspective used in the game can be taken from 1st or 3rd person, or not related to a character at all. When related to the environment, it can be shown in a normal perspective, a bird or frog perspective, or a specified type as the isometric perspective.

	*Elements that form meaning*	To be able to construct the smallest elements that bear meaning in a game, elements of four different sign systems are necessary:
		1. The dramaturgical system. Virtual environments and characters are created as visual and meaningful elements for a game-situation to start and develop.
		2. The image system. The virtual environments and characters are modelled and shown from a certain angle and perspective.
		3. The speech system. Text is created and linked to the virtual environment and virtual characters. This text can be visualised or spoken. The text used can also be more symbolical and does not always have to be fully understandable.
		4. The musical and sound system. Depending on the action, a musical score and soundscape is used to underline the situation or action.
		All four elements can on itself already bear a meaning, but in the combination of the four the meaning of the smallest meaning-bearing game element is realised. The combination of the different elements can lead to a stronger emphasis on a certain meaning, can contradict each other, leaving the user to make his own choice, or can even turn the original meaning around, creating an opposite meaning.

	*Elements that bear meaning*	The smallest element that can bear meaning is the situation. It is a combination of player action, image and sound, and is definied by the fact that during the gamesituation there is no significant change of in the player's action. The changes can be either pre-determined by the designer: an editing of camera or a forced change because of a change in environment (a gap to jump over, or an enemy to avoid), or decided at that moment by the user. This does not mean, that the situation on itself always bears the entire meaning, or provides sufficient information to understand the meaning of the game. Often the combination of two or more different situations, explain the meaning or make a statement.
		A larger element, that is often better to isolate and understand, is the scene, which is characterised by the untiy of place and time. This element derives of the term as it is used in theatre and dramaturgy. With some games this will prove to be a useful instrument, in others it will be difficult to make a separation between scenes, or to identify more than one scene.
		Another possibility is looking at a combination of situations, the syntagma. The syntagma is defined by a contents orientated closed part of the action. Although this description is rather vague, it is a useful tool for all types of games, as in general different parts can be recognised in all kinds of different contents. As a further discrimination of elements that bear meaning, one can look at the combination of syntagmas or the entire game.

Syntactics of games The syntactics describe the rules for the combination of the different elements of the game that bear meaning.	*The situation*	Situations are in itself constructions of different elements. This means that it is possible, that some of these elements do show a change in situation, while others do not, or at a different moment. As an example a situation can change at the level of the image, while the sound or music still continues.
		1. Image. The first level to be examined for an analysis would be that of the image. There are many different visual elements: the virtual environment, lighting effects, appearance of characters, perspective and virtual camera, etc.
		2. Speech. The second level is that of speech. Both spoken en written language, from characters, narrators and signs are to be examined.
		3. Sound and Music. The third level is that of sound and music. These elements add to the experience of gameplay and the atmosphere of the game situation.
		4. Interaction and feedback. The fourth and final level is that of interaction and feedback. The action of the user in the given situation, and the feedback through action and instruments, have an influence on the meaning and experience of the game situation.
		The meaning of a situation comes from the combination of the four elements indicated above. All four elements bear their own, individual, meaning.

	*Editing*	A game uses the sequence of situations to develop the story and interaction. Through the combination of situations a syntagma arises. The theory of editing concentrates on the combination of situations. The connection of two situations gains in meaning compared to the sum of the two meanings. As there is little known about the possibillities of game-editing, the patterns described are taken from film-editing.
		1. Editing through multiple use of situations. * Parallel editing The connection of several situations, a least four, where one of the situations continues to return after a certain serie of other situations. Of course it is also possible that a certain combination of situations is repeated. This type of editing is often used to raise the tension. * Chiasm In this type a certain situation is interrupted on a regular basis by another situation, which resembles the other by the used technique.
		2. Editing by combination of situations that on itself do not bear sufficient meaning. * Distinctio The real meaning of a situation with multiple meanings becomes clear through the addition of the next situation. * Climax The statement in the first situation is enhanced in every further situation.
		3. Editing through change of coordinates of the virtual camera. (This type will hardly be found in games) * Polyptoton The development of an action is divided into different situations, each with a different camera setting. * Anastrophe A succession of situation with certain camera settings is followed by another succession of situations with a different camera setting.
		4. Editing through discontinuity of time and space. * Ellips The development of an action is brought back to two situations: the starting point and the end. The two situations are seperated by a neutral situation. * Enumeratio An overview situation is followed by a number of cut out situations, that represent the first situation completely again, or a part of it. The elapse of time is stopped for the period of this type of editing.
		5. Editing by substitution of meaning. * Synonymy The contents of an image is substituted for a similar type of contents, while the position of the virtual camera stays unchanged. * Annominatio Also known as associative editing. Through the editing different type of situations, with different contents, are linked together. The effect of the sequence of the different contents of the situations causes the realisation of the meaning. * Syntagma It is difficult to give a general description of the syntagma. In its most simple form, it is just one situation, in others it contains any amount situations. Considering the single situation as an exemption, eight possible types are left: - Autonomous situation Next to the simple sequence, consisting of just one situation, it is also possible to have one long existing situation, in which another situation is inserted (interpolation). - Parallel syntagma Two independent events are alternately in situations shown and in this way connected. A relation between the contents of the two different events is established in this way. - Clenched syntagma Situations with different contents are connected through an equally structured combination. Thus offering a context for a certain situation. - Descriptive syntagma The edited situations do not show a development in time of the action, but show a spatial simultaneity. - Alternating syntagma The situations of two different actions are combined in such a consecutive way, that an impression of similarity is created. - Scene This is, as in theatre, a combination of situations, that are connected through a unity of time and space. - Sequence This is a combination of situations chosen from a continuity of action, by which a shortening of the real-time is realised. - Episodes A sequence of short situations without a direct relation, that are separated from each other by a certain type of interpolation.

Game as medium
The field of communication of games	As a medium, games are a system of signs used to transmit meaning in the context of a communicational setting. This means that, besides the investigation of the game code, the elements of the communicational setting should be investigated as well. Often such a research focusses mainly on the part of the communicator.
	Ten different parts of interest can be recognised, that are useful for such a research: 1. The characteristics of the development team, and the main responsible persons within this team 2. The level of development of the games industry in the country of origin 3. The political situation in the country of origin 4. The time of production 5. If relevant, the development of a certain (art) movement of a type of games 6. The distribution situation in the country of production 7. The importance of the game in relation to the production world wide 8. The specific productional circumstances of the game 9. The distribution plan of the game 10. The influence the game has on other future productions through the reception of it
	A thorough analysis of course also involves the elements at the reception side of the communication. One has to take into account that relevent information can only be given from the situation at the moment of analysis, or through descriptions from others of effects during the reception. In general it is possible to describe the general situation on the side of reception during production or initial reception.

The communication process of games	The communication in a game is always a one-way communication process as far as the relationship between the developer and the user is concerned. Users of course can have a communication during gameplay. In such cases the game is not used as a vehicel for the communication of meanings, but as a communication window for two (or more) individuals. An active feed back of the user to the developer is not possible. For the analysis of the communication process the different elements of the field of communication can be investigated:
	1. Communicator 1. Is it clear what the goal of the communicator is with this game? 2. Is there a certain target group recognisable as an audience? 3. Is it possible to recognise the attitude of the communicator towards the recepient?
	2. Medium 1. Does the game take certain user habits into account? 2. Does the game use action cliches? 3. Does the game use manipulative means to make its statements?
	3. Recipient 1. Is the motivation of the recepient influenced by elements of this game? 2. Is the effect of the game accomplished by certain elements? 3. Is the expectation of the recipient satisfied?
	The communication process with games is always largely dependent on the attitude of the recipient, and his expectations and game habits.